In the Evolution is defined as the change in adaptive features of a population over time as a result of natural selection Natural selection results in a process of adaptation , which means that, over generations, those features that are better adapted to the environment become more common SELECTION AND THE EVOLUTION OF INDUSTRY BY BOYAN JOVANOVIC1 Recent evidence shows that within an industry, smaller firms grow faster and are more likely to fail than large firms. The theory of evolution by natural selection explains how species evolve, or change through time sometimes changing so much that new species are created. Conflict mediation. ) Roy. And about 2 billion ) Tj T* 0.195 Tc 3.3675 Tw (years ago, archaebacte) Tj 99 0 TD -0.4287 Tc 0 Tw (ria) Tj 9.75 0 TD -0.2467 Tc (-) Tj 3 0 TD 0.1122 Tc 3 Tw (like cells \(destined to be the) Tj 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj -111.75 -11.25 TD 0.1374 Tc 2.8894 Tw (ancestors of all eukaryotes\) began alliances with other) Tj 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj 0 -11.25 TD 0.0045 Tc -0.192 Tw (bacteria to form the first eukaryotic like cell. ) Genetic pressure in animal breeding is sparking the interest of breeders for selecting elite boars with higher sperm quality to optimize ejaculate doses and fertility rates. Soc. When humans manage this process, its called artificial selection. The total change in gene frequency results ) Tj 0 -11.25 TD 0.0576 Tc 0.1299 Tw (from both ) Tj 41.25 0 TD 0.2005 Tc -0.2942 Tw (within and between group change. Tj 231 0 TD 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj -231 -11.25 TD ( ) Tj 9.75 0 TD 0.0642 Tc 0.6483 Tw (The modifier allele can affect virtually any aspect of the ) Tj -9.75 -11.25 TD 0.0725 Tc 0.34 Tw (model, in particular we have studied modifiers that create a ) Tj 0 -11.25 TD 0.3498 Tc 0 Tw (ger) Tj 12.75 0 TD 0.0935 Tc 0.219 Tw (m line, that police other cells, or that cause cell death of ) Tj -12.75 -11.25 TD 0.1498 Tc 0.996 Tw (renegade dividing cells. How this came) Tj 168.75 0 TD 0.0397 Tc 0.2228 Tw ( about is far from ) Tj -168.75 -11.25 TD 0.0643 Tc 2.4755 Tw (clear. Reeve and Keller in the first chapter of Levels of Selection in Evolution (Princeton Univ. To) Tj 0 Tc 0.5625 Tw ( ) Tj T* 0.2576 Tc 1.8049 Tw (understand the conditions ) Tj 117 0 TD 0.145 Tc 1.73 Tw (under which an evolutionary ) Tj -117 -11.25 TD 0.1512 Tc 1.828 Tw (transition occurs, we posit a second modifier locus that ) Tj 0 -11.25 TD 0.1557 Tc 0.6211 Tw (modifies the assumptions and parameters representing the ) Tj T* 0.1076 Tc 2.9549 Tw (biological processes described above. Otherwise ) Tj T* 0.1606 Tc 1.3185 Tw (their continued evolution is frustrated by the creation of ) Tj T* -0.1535 Tc 0 Tw (within) Tj 24.75 0 TD -0.2467 Tc (-) Tj 3 0 TD -0.0822 Tc (org) Tj 13.5 0 TD 0.0906 Tc 2.079 Tw (anism variation and conflict. The ) Tj -195.75 -11.25 TD 0.169 Tc 0.5602 Tw (functioning of the groups and their group fitness \(number ) Tj 0 -11.25 TD 0.2288 Tc -0.3226 Tw (of propagules or offspring groups produced\) depends upon ) Tj T* 0.1418 Tc -0.1793 Tw (their composition of mutant and non) Tj 146.25 0 TD -0.2467 Tc 0 Tw (-) Tj 3 0 TD 0.1584 Tc -0.1959 Tw (mutant cells at the end ) Tj -149.25 -11.25 TD 0.1656 Tc -0.1031 Tw (of development. + xii. Tj 165.75 0 TD 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj -165.75 -11.25 TD ( ) Tj 9.75 0 TD 0.084 Tc 0.0098 Tw (The proliferation of cells during development is indicated ) Tj -9.75 -11.25 TD 0.1513 Tc 2.6612 Tw (by the vertical ar) Tj 75.75 0 TD 0.0768 Tc 1.2357 Tw (rows in ) Tj 36 0 TD -0.1179 Tc 0 Tw (Figure) Tj 25.5 0 TD /F1 9 Tf 0 Tc ( ) Tj 4.5 0 TD (1) Tj 4.5 0 TD /F1 9.75 Tf 0.099 Tc 1.5885 Tw (. Two components of group fitness are considered: ) Tj -36 -12 TD 0.0057 Tc 3.5192 Tw (size of the adult group and its functionality \(or level of) Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw ( ) Tj 0 -12 TD 0.0116 Tc 5.9884 Tw (cooperation among its component cells represented by) Tj 0 Tc 0.75 Tw ( ) Tj T* 0.002 Tc -0.002 Tw (parameter ) Tj 39.75 0 TD /F2 9 Tf 0 Tc 0 Tw (?) There will also be a change in gene frequency in ) Tj -42.75 -11.25 TD 0.1617 Tc 0.2341 Tw (the global population due to differences in fitness between ) Tj 0 -11.25 TD 0.1997 Tc -0.106 Tw (the adult groups \(dotted arrows\). It is this process of evolution that has given rise to biodiversity at every level of biological organisation, including the levels of species, individual organisms and molecules. As discussed further ) Tj T* 0.1645 Tc 0.398 Tw (below, adaptations that restrict the opport) Tj 171.75 0 TD 0.0656 Tc 0.2469 Tw (unity for conflict ) Tj -171.75 -11.25 TD 0.0589 Tc 1.6703 Tw (between higher and lower levels \(what we term \223conflict ) Tj 0 -11.25 TD 0.1045 Tc 0.3746 Tw (modifiers\224\) are instrumental in the conversion of the group ) Tj T* 0.1382 Tc 0.5743 Tw (to a new evolutionary individual, in the case studied here, ) Tj T* 0.0639 Tc 1.7486 Tw (conversion of the cell group to a multicellular organism. ) The variety you see in the living things all around you is a result of each organisms unique genes. The propagules are single cells in ) Tj -46.5 -12 TD -0.0541 Tc 2.4707 Tw (the cases of zygote and aggregation reproduction and small ) Tj 0 -12 TD -0.0219 Tc 0.0219 Tw (groups of cells in the case of fragmentation. Tj 107.25 0 TD 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj -198 -11.25 TD -0.2813 Tc 0.0938 Tw (5. ) It is based around the concept that individuals with beneficial traits for in their environment are more likely to reproduce and pass on their traits and genes to more offspring. 1997. On this approach, the level of entity actively selected (the interactor) benefits from evolution by selection at that level through its acquisition of adaptations. Rates of evolution Almost all populations contain abundant genetic variation, at all levels: DNA sequence, protein sequence, and phenotypic traits. It’s the process whereby organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring. The two components of frequency change, ) Tj 0 -11.25 TD 0.1379 Tc 1.0913 Tw (within organisms and between organisms give rise to the ) Tj T* 0.1647 Tc -0.3522 Tw (total change in gene frequency in the global population) Tj 221.25 0 TD /F2 9.75 Tf -0.1875 Tc 0 Tw (.) A theory of evolutionary ) Tj 0 -11.25 TD 0.1612 Tc -0.3487 Tw (transitions. ) This book provides a comprehensive analysis of the long-standing controversy in evolutionary biology over the levels of selection, focusing on conceptual, philosophical, and foundational questions. Cooperation is now seen as the primary ) Tj T* 0.1102 Tc 0.6666 Tw (creative force behind ever greater levels of co) Tj 188.25 0 TD -0.0682 Tc 0.6307 Tw (mplexity and ) Tj -188.25 -11.25 TD 0.0581 Tc -0.2456 Tw (organization in all of biology.) In addition to studying the focal levels ) Tj -78.75 -11.25 TD 0.0677 Tc 3.776 Tw (of cells and cell groups \(the emerging organism\), we) Tj 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj 0 -11.25 TD 0.2448 Tc 0 Tw (conside) Tj 31.5 0 TD 0.1504 Tc -0.0046 Tw (r the \223surrounding\224 levels of genes within cells and ) Tj -31.5 -11.25 TD 0.174 Tc 4.2323 Tw (populations of cell groups. By molding the) Tj 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj -91.5 -11.25 TD 0.1459 Tc 1.0302 Tw (ways in which the levels interact so as to reduce conflict ) Tj 0 -11.25 TD 0.0244 Tc 0.1631 Tw (among cells, for example by segregating a germ l) Tj 195 0 TD 0.0224 Tc -0.2099 Tw (ine early or ) Tj -195 -11.25 TD 0.1059 Tc 1.7899 Tw (by policing the selfish tendencies of cells, the modifiers ) Tj 264.75 635.25 TD 0.1389 Tc -0.3264 Tw (construct the first true emergent organism level functions.) An organism is more than a group of ) Tj 0 -11.25 TD 0.1388 Tc 1.6023 Tw (cooperating cells related by common descent; organisms ) Tj T* 0.0968 Tc 0.4657 Tw (require adaptations that regulate conflict within. 10 0 obj << /Length 11 0 R >> stream Tj 108 0 TD -0.0633 Tc 1.0008 Tw ( II. The fitness of group ) Tj 137.25 0 TD /F2 9 Tf -0.252 Tc 0 Tw (j) Tj 2.25 0 TD /F1 9 Tf -0.0463 Tc 1.0963 Tw (, defined as the expected ) Tj -139.5 -12 TD 0.0203 Tc 0.6615 Tw (number of offspring produced by the group is indicated by the ) Tj 0 -12 TD 0.0273 Tc 1.4727 Tw (dotted lin) Tj 36 0 TD 0.0122 Tc 0.7378 Tw (es. Natural selection is the process that drives the evolution of new species. Professor Samir Okasha's book "Evolution and the Levels of Selection" is a materpiece that is second to none! The chapters here follow a rigorous theoretical framework, giving the book … It is as simple as Òsurvival of the Þttest.Ó There is, though, an important subtlety that is often omitted by the biology textbooks, providing a radical shift in the way we view evolution and natural selection. In the transition) Tj 191.25 0 TD -0.0247 Tc 0.3372 Tw ( from single ) Tj -191.25 -11.25 TD 0.0256 Tc 1.2869 Tw (cells to multicellular organisms, the cells form cell groups ) Tj 0 -11.25 TD 0.1722 Tc 1.8903 Tw (belonging to the same species) Tj 129.75 4.5 TD /F1 6 Tf 0 Tc 0 Tw (6) Tj 3 -4.5 TD /F1 9.75 Tf 0.0066 Tc 1.3059 Tw (. Tj 116.25 0 TD 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj -116.25 -11.25 TD ( ) Tj 117 -11.25 TD 0.0086 Tc -0.1961 Tw (Level of Selection) Tj 71.25 0 TD 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj ET 381 333 0.75 11.25 re f BT 324 335.25 TD -0.3133 Tc 0.1258 Tw (Cell ) Tj 0 -11.25 TD 0.1258 Tc 0 Tw (Behavior) Tj 36 0 TD 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj 59.25 0 TD -0.3133 Tc 0 Tw (Cell) Tj 15 0 TD 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj 47.25 0 TD -0.063 Tc -0.1245 Tw (Group \(organism\)) Tj 69.75 0 TD 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj ET 381 321.75 0.75 11.25 re f BT 324 312 TD 0.0618 Tc 0 Tw (Defection) Tj 39 0 TD 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj 24 0 TD 0.0158 Tc -0.2033 Tw (\(+\) replicate faster ) Tj 74.25 0 TD 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj 15.75 0 TD -0.2467 Tc 0 Tw (\() Tj 3 0 TD (-) Tj 3 0 TD 0.1728 Tc -0.3603 Tw (\) less functional) Tj 63.75 0 TD 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj ET 318 321 63 0.75 re f 381 321 0.75 0.75 re f 381.75 321 89.25 0.75 re f 471 321 0.75 0.75 re f 471.75 321 89.25 0.75 re f 381 309.75 0.75 11.25 re f BT 324 300.75 TD 0.1178 Tc 0 Tw (Cooperation) Tj 49.5 0 TD 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj 13.5 0 TD -0.2467 Tc 0 Tw (\() Tj 3 0 TD (-) Tj 3 0 TD 0.0113 Tc 0.0512 Tw (\) replicate slowly ) Tj 69.75 0 TD 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj 14.25 0 TD 0.0256 Tc -0.2131 Tw (\(+\) more functional) Tj 75.75 0 TD 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj ET 381 298.5 0.75 11.25 re f BT 318.75 251.25 TD ( ) Tj 9.75 0 TD 0.1972 Tc 1.2653 Tw (We wish to understand how fitness emerges at a new ) Tj -9.75 -11.25 TD 0.1222 Tc 1.0237 Tw (higher level. Tj 9 0 TD 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj 4.5 0 TD -0.0201 Tc 7.0826 Tw (Michod, R.E. For example, under ) Tj T* 0.0959 Tc -0.0959 Tw (certain conditions some bacteria associate to form a fruit) Tj 226.5 0 TD 0.0965 Tc 0.466 Tw (ing ) Tj -226.5 -11.25 TD 0.1324 Tc -0.1699 Tw (body, some amoebae associate to form a slug, some solitary ) Tj 0 -11.25 TD 0.0536 Tc 1.1755 Tw (cells form a colonial group, some normally solitary wasps ) Tj T* 0.1316 Tc -0.0691 Tw (breed cooperatively, some birds associate to form a colony, ) Tj T* 0.0376 Tc 2.4416 Tw (and some mammals form societies. Tj 96 0 TD /F2 9.75 Tf 0.0717 Tc -0.2592 Tw (Proc. ) �M0i��$��x�3b�u�K��,��ӕtS��xef$���tL��-/"� �. Costly forms of cooperation may ) Tj T* 0.1695 Tc 2.9763 Tw (be synergistic in our model or not, depending on the) Tj 239.25 0 TD 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj -239.25 -11.25 TD 0.1597 Tc -0.3472 Tw (magnitude of the costs and other parameters) Tj 177.75 4.5 TD /F1 6 Tf 0 Tc 0 Tw (5) Tj 3 -4.5 TD /F1 9.75 Tf -0.1875 Tc (. ) A multi-level approach of this kind allows important insights into the evolution of life, as well as bridging the long-standing conceptual chasm between molecular and organismal biologists. Tj 15.75 0 TD 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj -111.75 -11.25 TD -0.2813 Tc 0.0938 Tw (2. ) The theory of its action was first fully explained by Charles Darwin and is now believed to be the main process that brings about evolution. Tj 68.25 0 TD 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj -68.25 -11.25 TD ( ) Tj 9.75 0 TD 0.1527 Tc 2.6598 Tw (Throughout this paper, we illustrate our approa) Tj 207 0 TD 0.3026 Tc 1.0099 Tw (ch to ) Tj -216.75 -11.25 TD 0.1414 Tc 2.0283 Tw (evolutionary transitions using the transition from single ) Tj 0 -11.25 TD 0.0803 Tc -0.1741 Tw (cells to multicellular organisms. The Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection The theory of evolution by natural selection is a theory about the mechanism by which evolution occurred in the past, and is still occurring now. Therefore selection at level of groups cannot fix a trait that is detrimental at the level of individuals. Tj 21 0 TD 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj 6.75 -32.25 TD /F0 12 Tf 0.252 Tc 0 Tw (Over) Tj 25.5 0 TD -0.2915 Tc 0.2915 Tw (view of the Origin of Organisms) Tj 158.25 0 TD 0 Tc 0 Tw ( ) Tj -211.5 -18 TD /F1 9.75 Tf 0.0231 Tc 0.0894 Tw (The evolution of modifiers of within) Tj 144.75 0 TD -0.2467 Tc 0 Tw (-) Tj 3 0 TD 0.1612 Tc -0.0987 Tw (organism change leads ) Tj -147.75 -11.25 TD 0.1349 Tc 0.4276 Tw (to increased levels of cooperation within the organism and ) Tj 0 -11.25 TD 0.0965 Tc 0.966 Tw (increased heritability of fitness at the organism level. In the The basic problem in creating ) Tj -78 -11.25 TD 0.1192 Tc 0.4433 Tw (new evolutionary individuals involves generating heritable ) Tj 0 -11.25 TD 0.1102 Tc 1.2023 Tw (variation in fitness at the group level, while reducing the ) Tj T* 0.1702 Tc 2.9637 Tw (variation in fitness and scope for evolutionary change) Tj 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj T* 0.1028 Tc 2.7097 Tw (within groups. %PDF-1.3 %���� Michaela Lewis . We represent cell function in terms of a single ) Tj T* 0.1469 Tc 1.1656 Tw (cooperative strategy determined by genetic variation at a ) Tj T* 0.1044 Tc 3.7081 Tw (single genetic locus with two alleles: non) Tj 187.5 0 TD -0.2467 Tc 0 Tw (-) Tj 3 0 TD 0.1762 Tc 1.8863 Tw (mutant and ) Tj -190.5 -11.25 TD 0.1327 Tc 0.4298 Tw (mutant. Evolution of Human Mate Choice David C. Geary, Jacob Vigil, and Jennifer Byrd-Craven University of Missouri – Columbia This article provides a review of evolutionary theory and empirical research on mate choices in non-human species and used as a frame for understanding the how and why of … Variation in fitness depen) Tj 177 0 TD 0.2668 Tc 1.5457 Tw (ds upon many ) Tj -177 -11.25 TD 0.1681 Tc 6.0944 Tw (processes and factors, including reproductive mode) Tj 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj 0 -11.25 TD 0.0328 Tc 9.9047 Tw (\(asexual, sexual, fragmentation, etc.\), reproductive) Tj 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj 264.75 491.25 TD 0.0569 Tc 4.5056 Tw (specialization of group members \(germ versus soma\),) Tj 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj 0 -11.25 TD 0.1473 Tc 11.8527 Tw (development and mutation. Fitness ) Tj -204 -11.25 TD 0.1287 Tc 0.0588 Tw (variation at the cell and group levels translates directly into ) Tj 0 -11.25 TD 0.1762 Tc 2.8506 Tw (the opportunity for within and between group change.) free pdf download The Essential Tension : Competition, Cooperation and Multilevel Selection in Evolution “Basic stress” examines how the various factors that naturally compete with each other work. Tj 4.5 0 TD 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj -185.25 -11.25 TD ( ) Tj 9.75 0 TD 0.2155 Tc 0.4408 Tw (Mutant cells do not display the cooperative phenotype. ) Tj 15.75 0 TD 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj -190.5 -11.25 TD -0.2813 Tc 0.0938 Tw (4. ) Does natural selection act primarily on individual organisms, on groups, on genes, or on whole species? This paper aims to introduce the reader to these new developments. Tj 76.5 0 TD 0 Tc 0 Tw ( ) Tj ET endstream endobj 26 0 obj 42685 endobj 24 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 5 0 R /Resources << /Font << /F0 6 0 R /F1 8 0 R /F2 15 0 R /F3 17 0 R /F5 27 0 R >> /ProcSet 2 0 R >> /Contents 25 0 R >> endobj 30 0 obj << /Length 31 0 R >> stream Instead, they have direct effects on ) Tj -80.25 -11.25 TD 0.1506 Tc 2.3619 Tw (fitness at the cell and organism level by changing the ) Tj 0 -11.25 TD -0.0037 Tc 3.5662 Tw (parameters of within) Tj 88.5 0 TD -0.2467 Tc 0 Tw (-) Tj 3 0 TD 0.0875 Tc 3.2875 Tw (organism change. + xii. The question of levels of selection - on which biologists and philosophers have long disagreed - is central to evolutionary theory and to the philosophy of biology. We have studied two different kinds of ) Tj 0 -11.25 TD 0.1926 Tc 3.9699 Tw (cooperation, depending upon whether the cooperative) Tj 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj T* 0.1061 Tc 0.3883 Tw (phenotype is costly or beneficial at the cell level. In this system the balance of opposing selection coefficients at different levels should give an equilibrium allele frequency of 0.7 for f(t) allele (using data not provided here). An organism must have functions that maintain its ) Tj 0 -11.25 TD 0.1027 Tc 8.2098 Tw (integrity and individuality. The evolution of ) Tj -41.25 -11.25 TD -0.0832 Tc 5.1457 Tw (modifiers of within) Tj 84.75 0 TD -0.2467 Tc 0 Tw (-) Tj 3 0 TD 0.1839 Tc 4.5036 Tw (organism change are a necessary) Tj 0 Tc 0.5625 Tw ( ) Tj -87.75 -11.25 TD 0.1178 Tc 3.4447 Tw (prerequisite to the emergence of individuality and the) Tj 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj 0 -11.25 TD 0.0962 Tc -0.2837 Tw (continued well being of the organism. ) Tj -124.5 -11.25 TD 0.0872 Tc -0.0019 Tw (Groups may breakup and reform as in the case of horizontal ) Tj 0 -11.25 TD 0.159 Tc 0.0285 Tw (transmission, or reproduce as groups in the case of vertical ) Tj T* 0.1743 Tc 0 Tw (transmission.) As cooperation creates new levels of fitness, it ) Tj 0 -11.25 TD 0.1597 Tc 3.5099 Tw (creates the opportunity for conflict between levels as) Tj 0 Tc 0.5625 Tw ( ) Tj T* 0.2006 Tc 0.1744 Tw (deleterious mutants arise and spread. How and why does this occur?) Tj 9 0 TD 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj 4.5 0 TD -0.0989 Tc 3.0614 Tw (Michod, R.E. When these ) Tj 0 -11.25 TD 0.083 Tc 3.6045 Tw (modifiers of development and within organism change) Tj 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj T* 0.1365 Tc 4.926 Tw (increase in the population, the level of cooperation) Tj 0 Tc 0.5625 Tw ( ) Tj T* 0.1895 Tc 1.498 Tw (increases as does the heritability of fitness at the group ) Tj T* -0.0652 Tc 0 Tw (level.) Tj 152.25 0 TD 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj -152.25 -11.25 TD ( ) Tj 9.75 0 TD 0.2019 Tc -0.3894 Tw (What happens during an evolutionary transition to a new ) Tj -9.75 -11.25 TD 0.2231 Tc 0 Tw (higher) Tj 25.5 0 TD 0.0949 Tc 5.6239 Tw ( level unit of individuality, in this case the) Tj 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj -25.5 -11.25 TD 0.0809 Tc -0.0541 Tw (multicellular organism? Michaela Lewis . The ) Tj T* 0.1093 Tc 1.096 Tw (evolution of these modifiers are the first ne) Tj 180.75 0 TD 0.1776 Tc 0.3849 Tw (w functions at ) Tj -180.75 -11.25 TD 0.1039 Tc 1.1405 Tw (the organism level. Although we focus on the case ) Tj T* -0.2089 Tc 1.5214 Tw (of mult) Tj 29.25 0 TD 0.1196 Tc 0.8179 Tw (icellularity, we believe the issues we discuss apply ) Tj -29.25 -11.25 TD 0.1125 Tc 3.825 Tw (to the other major transitions including the origin of) Tj 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj 0 -11.25 TD -0.0136 Tc 0 Tw (bacteria) Tj 31.5 0 TD -0.2467 Tc (-) Tj 3 0 TD -0.0544 Tc 0.617 Tw (like cells, eukaryotic) Tj 81.75 0 TD -0.2467 Tc 0 Tw (-) Tj 3 0 TD 0.0811 Tc 0.1814 Tw (like cells \(as discussed briefly ) Tj -119.25 -11.25 TD 0.1989 Tc -0.3864 Tw (at the end\) and societies. ) BT 196.5 718.5 TD 0 0 0 rg /F0 15.75 Tf -0.2914 Tc 0.1039 Tw (A Multi) Tj 50.25 0 TD 0.0052 Tc 0 Tw (-) Tj 5.25 0 TD -0.0389 Tc -0.1486 Tw (level Selection Theory of ) Tj 167.25 0 TD 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj -246 -24 TD -0.2916 Tc 0.1041 Tw (Evolutionary Transitions in Individuality) Tj 265.5 0 TD /F1 9 Tf 0 Tc 0 Tw ( ) Tj -221.25 -28.5 TD /F0 12 Tf -0.2193 Tc 0.2193 Tw (Richard E. Michod and Denis Roze) Tj 176.25 0 TD 0 Tc 0 Tw ( ) Tj -87.75 -12.75 TD /F1 9 Tf ( ) Tj -90 -12 TD -0.0423 Tc 0.0423 Tw (Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology) Tj 180 0 TD 0 Tc 0 Tw ( ) Tj -167.25 -12 TD 0.0765 Tc -0.0765 Tw (University of Arizona Tucson, AZ 85721) Tj 153.75 0 TD 0 Tc 0 Tw ( ) Tj -117.75 -12 TD -0.0636 Tc (michod@u.arizona.edu) Tj 82.5 0 TD 0 Tc ( ) Tj -293.25 -12 TD /F1 9.75 Tf -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj 89.25 -14.25 TD /F0 12 Tf -0.32 Tc 0 Tw (Introduction) Tj 60.75 0 TD 0 Tc ( ) Tj -150 -18 TD /F1 9.75 Tf 0.1127 Tc 1.1998 Tw (The organization of th) Tj 93 0 TD 0.0152 Tc 0.7348 Tw (e living world is hierarchical) Tj 114.75 0 TD 0 Tc 0 Tw (\227) Tj 9.75 0 TD -0.0901 Tc -0.0974 Tw (lower ) Tj -217.5 -11.25 TD 0.1533 Tc 1.6592 Tw (level units group together and cooperate to form higher ) Tj 0 -11.25 TD 0.0858 Tc 0.9767 Tw (level units of organization \(genes, chromosomes, bacteria) Tj 236.25 0 TD -0.2467 Tc 0 Tw (-) Tj -236.25 -11.25 TD -0.0544 Tc 2.117 Tw (like cells, eukaryotic) Tj 84.75 0 TD -0.2467 Tc 0 Tw (-) Tj 3 0 TD -0.0902 Tc 1.4027 Tw (like cells \(cells in cells\), multicellular ) Tj -87.75 -11.25 TD 0.0871 Tc 1.0754 Tw (organisms and societies\). In the case of aggregation, the ) Tj T* -0.0311 Tc 0.4811 Tw (offspring group is formed by aggregation of cells. free pdf download The Essential Tension : Competition, Cooperation and Multilevel Selection in Evolution “Basic stress” examines how the various factors that naturally compete with each other work. Tj 53.25 0 TD 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj 37.5 -32.25 TD /F0 12 Tf 0.1782 Tc 0 Tw (References) Tj 57.75 0 TD 0 Tc ( ) Tj -148.5 -18 TD /F1 9.75 Tf -0.2813 Tc 0.0938 Tw (1. ) 2000. After ) Tj 0 -11.25 TD 0.0774 Tc 2.4539 Tw (group formation, members may reproduce or survive at ) Tj T* 0.1361 Tc 5.355 Tw (different rates leading to within group change. When cooperation benefits the cell as well as ) Tj 0 -11.25 TD 0.1447 Tc -0.1655 Tw (the cell group, cooperation is always synergistic, as defined ) Tj T* 0.021 Tc -0.004 Tw (in terms of a payoff matrix. Before the evolution ) Tj 0 -11.25 TD 0.1189 Tc 0.8936 Tw (of a means to reduce conflict between levels of selection, ) Tj T* 0.2284 Tc 3.3341 Tw (the evolution of new group adaptations \(such as the) Tj 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj T* 0.1416 Tc 1.3852 Tw (underlying traits leading to increased cooperation among ) Tj T* 0.1078 Tc 0.0797 Tw (cells\) is frustr) Tj 54.75 0 TD 0.1208 Tc -0.1833 Tw (ated by the deleterious mutation. Tj 57.75 0 TD 0 Tc -0.1875 Tw ( ) Tj ET BT 1.0088 0 0 1 67.5 273 Tm 0.0745 0.0824 0.0863 rg /F3 8.7157 Tf 0.0628 Tc 0 Tw (Group) Tj 11.8958 -17.25 TD 0 Tc -0.1925 Tw ( ) Tj ET 55.5 333 m 55.5 332.25 l 54.75 332.25 l 54.75 333.75 l 55.5 334.5 l 55.5 333 l 57 333 m 57 332.25 l 56.25 332.25 l 56.25 334.5 l 57 334.5 l 57 333.75 l 56.25 333.75 l 56.25 333 l 57 333 l h f* 57 327.75 m 60 334.5 l 60.75 334.5 l 63 327.75 l 62.25 327.75 l 61.5 330 l 58.5 330 l 58.5 327.75 l 57 327.75 l 59.25 330.75 m 61.5 330.75 l 60.75 332.25 l 60 333 l 60 333.75 l 60 332.25 l 59.25 330.75 l h f* 66.75 327.75 m 66.75 328.5 l 66 327.75 l 64.5 327.75 l 63.75 328.5 l 63.75 332.25 l 66.75 332.25 l 66.75 334.5 l 67.5 334.5 l 67.5 327.75 l 66.75 327.75 l 64.5 330 m 64.5 328.5 l 66 328.5 l 66 329.25 l 66.75 329.25 l 66.75 331.5 l 66 331.5 l 66 332.25 l 65.25 332.25 l 64.5 331.5 l 64.5 330 l h f* 71.25 327.75 m 71.25 328.5 l 71.25 327.75 l 69 327.75 l 69 328.5 l 68.25 329.25 l 68.25 332.25 l 69 332.25 l 69 329.25 l 69.75 329.25 l 69.75 328.5 l 71.25 328.5 l 71.25 329.25 l 71.25 330 l 71.25 332.25 l 72 332.25 l 72 327.75 l 71.25 327.75 l h f* 73.5 327.75 m 73.5 334.5 l 74.25 334.5 l 74.25 327.75 l 73.5 327.75 l h f* 77.25 328.5 m 77.25 327.75 l 75.75 327.75 l 75.75 332.25 l 75 332.25 l 75.75 332.25 l 75.75 333.75 l 76.5 334.5 l 76.5 332.25 l 77.25 332.25 l 76.5 332.25 l 76.5 328.5 l 77.25 328.5 l 77.25 328.5 l h f* 77.25 333.75 m 77.25 334.5 l 78.75 334.5 l 78.75 333.75 l 78 333 l 78 332.25 l 77.25 332.25 l 78 333 l 78 333.75 l 77.25 333.75 l 78.75 333.75 m 78.75 334.5 l 79.5 334.5 l 79.5 332.25 l 78.75 332.25 l 78.75 333 l 79.5 333 l 79.5 333.75 l 78.75 333.75 l h f* 83.25 327.75 m 84 327.75 l 84 327 l 85.5 327 l 86.25 327.75 l 86.25 328.5 l 85.5 328.5 l 85.5 327.75 l 84 327.75 l 83.25 328.5 l 83.25 329.25 l 82.5 330 l 82.5 330.75 l 83.25 331.5 l 83.25 332.25 l 84 332.25 l 84 332.25 l 87 332.25 l 87 327.75 l 86.25 327 l 86.25 326.25 l 83.25 326.25 l 83.25 327.75 l 83.25 330 m 84 329.25 l 84 328.5 l 85.5 328.5 l 85.5 329.25 l 86.25 329.25 l 86.25 330.75 l 85.5 331.5 l 85.5 332.25 l 84.75 332.25 l 84 331.5 l 84 330.75 l 83.25 330.75 l 83.25 330 l h f* 87.75 327.75 m 87.75 332.25 l 88.5 332.25 l 88.5 331.5 l 88.5 332.25 l 90.75 332.25 l 90 331.5 l 88.5 331.5 l 88.5 327.75 l 87.75 327.75 l h f* 90.75 330 m 90.75 331.5 l 91.5 332.25 l 94.5 332.25 l 94.5 328.5 l 93.75 327.75 l 91.5 327.75 l 91.5 328.5 l 90.75 328.5 l 90.75 329.25 l 90.75 330 l 91.5 330 m 91.5 329.25 l 92.25 328.5 l 93.75 328.5 l 93.75 331.5 l 93 332.25 l 92.25 332.25 l 92.25 331.5 l 91.5 331.5 l 91.5 330 l h f* 99 327.75 m 99 328.5 l 98.25 328.5 l 98.25 327.75 l 96.75 327.75 l 96 328.5 l 96 332.25 l 96.75 332.25 l 96.75 328.5 l 98.25 328.5 l 98.25 329.25 l 98.25 330 l 98.25 332.25 l 99.75 332.25 l 99.75 327.75 l 99 327.75 l h f* 100.5 326.25 m 100.5 332.25 l 104.25 332.25 l 104.25 328.5 l 103.5 327.75 l 102 327.75 l 101.25 328.5 l 101.25 326.25 l 100.5 326.25 l 101.25 330 m 101.25 329.25 l 102 329.25 l 102 328.5 l 103.5 328.5 l 103.5 331.5 l 102.75 332.25 l 102 332.25 l 102 331.5 l 101.25 331.5 l 101.25 330 l h f* BT 1.0088 0 0 1 54.75 305.25 Tm 0.0344 Tc 0 Tw (Within-group) Tj 10.4088 -9.75 TD 0.0681 Tc (change) Tj 14.1263 29.25 TD 0 Tc -0.1925 Tw ( ) Tj 0.1216 0.102 0.0902 rg ET 163.5 318.75 m 162 318 l 156.75 321.75 l 158.25 323.25 l h f 171.75 312 m 171 310.5 l 165.75 315 l 166.5 316.5 l h f 180 304.5 m 179.25 303.75 l 174 308.25 l 174.75 309 l h f 189 297.75 m 187.5 297 l 182.25 300.75 l 183 302.25 l h f 197.25 291 m 196.5 289.5 l 191.25 294 l 192 295.5 l h f 205.5 283.5 m 204.75 282.75 l 199.5 287.25 l 200.25 288 l h f 213.75 276.75 m 213 276 l 207.75 279.75 l 208.5 281.25 l h f 222.75 270 m 221.25 268.5 l 216 273 l 217.5 274.5 l h f 231 262.5 m 230.25 261.75 l 225 266.25 l 225.75 267 l h f 238.5 256.5 m 234 260.25 l 233.25 258.75 l 237.75 255 l h f 242.25 252.75 m 237 262.5 l 237 261 l 236.25 261 l 236.25 259.5 l 235.5 259.5 l 235.5 258 l 234.75 258 l 234.75 257.25 l 234 257.25 l 233.25 256.5 l 233.25 256.5 l 232.5 256.5 l 232.5 255.75 l 231.75 255.75 l 242.25 252.75 l h f* 132.75 307.5 m 132.75 285.75 l 134.25 285.75 l 134.25 307.5 l h f 133.5 312 m 129 302.25 l 130.5 302.25 l 130.5 303 l 135.75 303 l 136.5 303 l 137.25 302.25 l 138 302.25 l 133.5 312 l h f* BT 0.785 -0.6335 0.628 0.7782 154.5 313.5 Tm /F5 8.7143 Tf -0.345 Tc 0 Tw (H) Tj ET BT 0.785 -0.6335 0.628 0.7782 159.75 309 Tm 0.3605 Tc (o) Tj ET BT 0.785 -0.6335 0.628 0.7782 163.5 306 Tm 0.0724 Tc (r) Tj ET BT 0.785 -0.6335 0.628 0.7782 165.75 304.5 Tm 0.2969 Tc (i) Tj ET BT 0.785 -0.6335 0.628 0.7782 167.25 303 Tm 0.1041 Tc (z) Tj ET BT 0.785 -0.6335 0.628 0.7782 170.25 300 Tm 0.3605 Tc (o) Tj ET BT 0.785 -0.6335 0.628 0.7782 174 297 Tm (n) Tj ET BT 0.785 -0.6335 0.628 0.7782 177.75 294 Tm -0.1928 Tc (t) Tj ET BT 0.785 -0.6335 0.628 0.7782 180 292.5 Tm 0.3605 Tc (a) Tj ET BT 0.785 -0.6335 0.628 0.7782 183.75 289.5 Tm 0.2969 Tc (l) Tj ET BT 0.785 -0.6335 0.628 0.7782 184.5 288 Tm 0 Tc -0.1928 Tw ( ) Tj ET BT 0.785 -0.6335 0.628 0.7782 186.75 286.5 Tm -0.1928 Tc 0 Tw (t) Tj ET BT 0.785 -0.6335 0.628 0.7782 188.25 285 Tm 0.0724 Tc (r) Tj ET BT 0.785 -0.6335 0.628 0.7782 191.25 283.5 Tm 0.3605 Tc (a) Tj ET BT 0.785 -0.6335 0.628 0.7782 194.25 279.75 Tm (n) Tj ET BT 0.785 -0.6335 0.628 0.7782 198 276.75 Tm 0.1041 Tc (s) Tj ET BT 0.785 -0.6335 0.628 0.7782 201.75 274.5 Tm 0.1765 Tc (m) Tj ET BT 0.785 -0.6335 0.628 0.7782 207 270 Tm 0.2969 Tc (i) Tj ET BT 0.785 -0.6335 0.628 0.7782 208.5 268.5 Tm 0.1041 Tc (s) Tj ET BT 0.785 -0.6335 0.628 0.7782 212.25 265.5 Tm (s) Tj ET BT 0.785 -0.6335 0.628 0.7782 215.25 262.5 Tm 0.2969 Tc (i) Tj ET BT 0.785 -0.6335 0.628 0.7782 216.75 261.75 Tm 0.3605 Tc (o) Tj ET q 216.75 204 72 63.75 re h W n BT 0.785 -0.6335 0.628 0.7782 220.5 258.75 Tm (n) Tj ET Q 246 318.75 m 159.75 329.25 l 159.75 327.75 l 246 317.25 l h f 251.25 317.25 m 241.5 322.5 l 241.5 321 l 242.25 321 l 242.25 318 l 241.5 317.25 l 241.5 315.75 l 241.5 315.75 l 240.75 315 l 240.75 314.25 l 251.25 317.25 l h f* q 164.25 305.25 124.5 33.75 re h W n BT 1.0034 -0.1037 0.1028 0.9947 166.5 330 Tm /F5 8.7148 Tf 0.1351 Tc (V) Tj ET Q q 170.25 304.5 118.5 34.5 re h W n BT 1.0034 -0.1037 0.1028 0.9947 172.5 329.25 Tm /F5 8.7148 Tf 0.359 Tc (e) Tj ET Q q 174.75 303.75 114 35.25 re h W n BT 1.0034 -0.1037 0.1028 0.9947 177 328.5 Tm /F5 8.7148 Tf 0.0719 Tc (r) Tj ET Q q 177.75 303 111 36 re h W n BT 1.0034 -0.1037 0.1028 0.9947 180 328.5 Tm /F5 8.7148 Tf -0.1923 Tc (t) Tj ET Q q 180 303 108.75 36 re h W n BT 1.0034 -0.1037 0.1028 0.9947 182.25 327.75 Tm /F5 8.7148 Tf 0.2958 Tc (i) Tj ET Q q 182.25 303 106.5 36 re h W n BT 1.0034 -0.1037 0.1028 0.9947 184.5 327.75 Tm /F5 8.7148 Tf 0.1035 Tc (c) Tj ET Q q 186.75 302.25 102 36.75 re h W n BT 1.0034 -0.1037 0.1028 0.9947 189 327.75 Tm /F5 8.7148 Tf 0.359 Tc (a) Tj ET Q q 191.25 301.5 97.5 36.75 re h W n BT 1.0034 -0.1037 0.1028 0.9947 193.5 327 Tm /F5 8.7148 Tf 0.2958 Tc (l) Tj ET Q q 192.75 301.5 96 36.75 re h W n BT 1.0034 -0.1037 0.1028 0.9947 195 326.25 Tm /F5 8.7148 Tf 0 Tc -0.1923 Tw ( ) Tj ET Q q 195.75 301.5 93 36 re h W n BT 1.0034 -0.1037 0.1028 0.9947 198 326.25 Tm /F5 8.7148 Tf -0.1923 Tc (t) Tj ET Q q 198 300.75 90.75 36.75 re h W n BT 1.0034 -0.1037 0.1028 0.9947 200.25 326.25 Tm /F5 8.7148 Tf 0.0719 Tc (r) Tj ET Q q 201 300.75 87.75 36 re h W n BT 1.0034 -0.1037 0.1028 0.9947 203.25 325.5 Tm /F5 8.7148 Tf 0.359 Tc (a) Tj ET Q q 205.5 300 83.25 36.75 re h W n BT 1.0034 -0.1037 0.1028 0.9947 207.75 324.75 Tm /F5 8.7148 Tf 0.359 Tc (n) Tj ET Q q 210.75 299.25 78 36.75 re h W n BT 1.0034 -0.1037 0.1028 0.9947 212.25 324.75 Tm /F5 8.7148 Tf 0.1035 Tc (s) Tj ET Q q 214.5 298.5 74.25 36.75 re h W n BT 1.0034 -0.1037 0.1028 0.9947 216.75 324 Tm /F5 8.7148 Tf 0.1755 Tc (m) Tj ET Q q 222 297.75 66.75 36.75 re h W n BT 1.0034 -0.1037 0.1028 0.9947 224.25 323.25 Tm /F5 8.7148 Tf 0.2958 Tc (i) Tj ET Q q 223.5 297.75 65.25 36.75 re h W n BT 1.0034 -0.1037 0.1028 0.9947 225.75 322.5 Tm /F5 8.7148 Tf 0.1035 Tc (s) Tj ET Q q 228 297 60.75 36.75 re h W n BT 1.0034 -0.1037 0.1028 0.9947 230.25 322.5 Tm /F5 8.7148 Tf 0.1035 Tc (s) Tj ET Q q 232.5 297 56.25 36.75 re h W n BT 1.0034 -0.1037 0.1028 0.9947 234.75 321.75 Tm /F5 8.7148 Tf 0.2958 Tc (i) Tj ET Q q 234.75 296.25 54 36.75 re h W n BT 1.0034 -0.1037 0.1028 0.9947 237 321.75 Tm /F5 8.7148 Tf 0.359 Tc (o) Tj ET Q q 239.25 295.5 49.5 36.75 re h W n BT 1.0034 -0.1037 0.1028 0.9947 241.5 321 Tm /F5 8.7148 Tf 0.359 Tc (n) Tj ET Q q 199.5 297 89.25 11.25 re h W n BT 1.0088 0 0 1 199.5 299.25 Tm 0.0745 0.0824 0.0863 rg /F3 8.7157 Tf -0.0853 Tc (Between-group) Tj ET Q BT 1.0088 0 0 1 214.5 289.5 Tm 0.0745 0.0824 0.0863 rg /F3 8.7157 Tf 0.0681 Tc (change) Tj -156.1325 -48 TD -0.0634 Tc (Association) Tj 0.1216 0.102 0.0902 rg ET 132.75 228 1.5 0.75 re f 132.75 230.25 1.5 1.5 re f 132.75 232.5 1.5 1.5 re f 132.75 234.75 1.5 1.5 re f 132.75 237.75 1.5 0.75 re f 132.75 240 1.5 1.5 re f 132.75 242.25 1.5 1.5 re f 132.75 245.25 1.5 0.75 re f 132.75 247.5 1.5 0.75 re f 132.75 249.75 1.5 1.5 re f 132.75 252 1.5 1.5 re f 132.75 255 1.5 0.75 re f 133.5 261.75 m 129 251.25 l 129.75 252 l 131.25 252 l 131.25 252.75 l 135.75 252.75 l 135.75 252 l 136.5 252 l 138 252 l 138 251.25 l 133.5 261.75 l h f* BT 1.0088 0 0 1 59.25 213 Tm 0.0745 0.0824 0.0863 rg -0.048 Tc -0.1449 Tw (Free-living ) Tj 5.2044 -9.75 TD 0.0276 Tc 0 Tw (species) Tj 0.1216 0.102 0.0902 rg ET 213 221.25 m 213.75 219.75 l 208.5 216.75 l 207.75 218.25 l h f 219.75 225 m 220.5 223.5 l 215.25 220.5 l 214.5 222 l h f 225.75 228.75 m 226.5 228 l 221.25 224.25 l 220.5 225.75 l h f 232.5 232.5 m 233.25 231.75 l 228 228 l 227.25 229.5 l h f 235.5 234.75 m 233.25 233.25 l 234 231.75 l 236.25 233.25 l h f 240 236.25 m 228.75 234.75 l 229.5 234.75 l 231.75 232.5 l 231.75 231.75 l 232.5 231.75 l 232.5 230.25 l 233.25 230.25 l 233.25 229.5 l 233.25 229.5 l 233.25 227.25 l 240 236.25 l h f* 249.75 213 m 251.25 212.25 l 247.5 207.75 l 246 208.5 l h f 254.25 218.25 m 255 216.75 l 252 213 l 250.5 213.75 l h f 257.25 222 m 255 219 l 255.75 218.25 l 258.75 220.5 l h f 261 225 m 251.25 220.5 l 252 220.5 l 252 219.75 l 253.5 219.75 l 253.5 219 l 255 219 l 255 218.25 l 255.75 218.25 l 255.75 217.5 l 256.5 217.5 l 256.5 216.75 l 257.25 216.75 l 257.25 216 l 258 215.25 l 258 214.5 l 261 225 l h f* 266.25 254.25 m 267.75 254.25 l 267.75 252.75 l 266.25 253.5 l h f 267 256.5 m 267.75 255.75 l 267.75 255 l 266.25 255 l h f 267 258 m 268.5 258 l 268.5 256.5 l 267 257.25 l h f 267.75 260.25 m 269.25 259.5 l 268.5 258.75 l 267.75 259.5 l h f 268.5 262.5 m 269.25 261.75 l 269.25 261 l 267.75 261 l h f 268.5 264 m 270 264 l 270 262.5 l 268.5 263.25 l h f 270.75 270 m 264 261 l 270 261 l 270 260.25 l 270.75 260.25 l 270.75 260.25 l 271.5 259.5 l 272.25 259.5 l 272.25 258.75 l 270.75 270 l h f* 0.5176 0.5098 0.5098 rg 121.5 214.5 m 121.5 213.75 l 120 212.25 l 118.5 212.25 l 118.5 213 l 117.75 213 l 117.75 215.25 l 118.5 216 l 120.75 216 l 120.75 215.25 l 121.5 215.25 l 121.5 214.5 l h f* 0.0745 0.0824 0.0863 rg 119.25 212.25 m 120 212.25 l 121.5 213.75 l 121.5 214.5 l 121.5 213.75 l 120.75 213.75 l 120.75 213 l 120 213 l 120 212.25 l 119.25 212.25 l h f 117.75 214.5 m 117.75 213 l 118.5 213 l 118.5 212.25 l 119.25 212.25 l 118.5 213 l 117.75 213 l 117.75 214.5 l h f 119.25 216 m 117.75 216 l 117.75 214.5 l 117.75 215.25 l 118.5 216 l 119.25 216 l h f 121.5 214.5 m 121.5 215.25 l 120.75 215.25 l 120.75 216 l 119.25 216 l 120.75 216 l 120.75 215.25 l 121.5 214.5 l h f 0.5176 0.5098 0.5098 rg 132.75 204.75 m 132 204 l 132 203.25 l 129.75 203.25 l 129 204 l 129 206.25 l 129.75 206.25 l 129.75 207 l 131.25 207 l 132 206.25 l 132 206.25 l 132 205.5 l 132.75 205.5 l 132.75 204.75 l h f* 0.0745 0.0824 0.0863 rg 130.5 203.25 m 132 203.25 l 132 204 l 132.75 204.75 l 132 204 l 132 203.25 l 130.5 203.25 l h f 128.25 204.75 m 129 204.75 l 129 203.25 l 130.5 203.25 l 129.75 203.25 l 129 204 l 129 204.75 l h f 130.5 207 m 129.75 207 l 129.75 206.25 l 129 206.25 l 129 205.5 l 128.25 204.75 l 129 204.75 l 129 206.25 l 129.75 206.25 l 130.5 207 l h f 132.75 204.75 m 132.75 205.5 l 132 205.5 l 132 206.25 l 131.25 207 l 130.5 207 l 131.25 207 l 131.25 206.25 l 132 206.25 l 132 205.5 l 132.75 205.5 l 132.75 204.75 l h f 0.5176 0.5098 0.5098 rg 129.75 221.25 m 129 220.5 l 129 219.75 l 128.25 219.75 l 128.25 219 l 126.75 219 l 126.75 219.75 l 126 219.75 l 126 220.5 l 125.25 220.5 l 125.25 221.25 l 126 222 l 126 222.75 l 128.25 222.75 l 129 222.75 l 129 222 l 129 221.25 l 129.75 221.25 l h f* 0.0745 0.0824 0.0863 rg 127.5 219 m 128.25 219 l 128.25 219.75 l 129 219.75 l 129 220.5 l 129.75 220.5 l 129.75 221.25 l 129 221.25 l 129 219.75 l 128.25 219.75 l 127.5 219 l h f 125.25 221.25 m 125.25 220.5 l 126 220.5 l 126 219.75 l 126.75 219.75 l 126.75 219 l 127.5 219 l 126.75 219 l 126.75 219.75 l 126 219.75 l 126 220.5 l 125.25 221.25 l h f 127.5 222.75 m 126 222.75 l 126 222 l 125.25 221.25 l 126 221.25 l 126 222 l 126.75 222.75 l 127.5 222.75 l h f 129.75 221.25 m 129 222 l 129 222.75 l 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